Turkey vs. Syria
Introduction
Turkey | Syria | |
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Background | Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the remnants of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks." Under his leadership, the country adopted radical social, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-party rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950 election victory of the opposition Democrat Party and the peaceful transfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties have multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of instability and military coups (1960, 1971, 1980), which in each case eventually resulted in a return of formal political power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then Islamic-oriented government. An unsuccessful coup attempt was made in July 2016 by a faction of the Turkish Armed Forces. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has since acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus," which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984 by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), a US-designated terrorist organization, has long dominated the attention of Turkish security forces and claimed more than 40,000 lives. In 2013, the Turkish Government and the PKK conducted negotiations aimed at ending the violence, however intense fighting resumed in 2015. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a member of NATO. In 1963, Turkey became an associate member of the European Community; it began accession talks with the EU in 2005. Over the past decade, economic reforms, coupled with some political reforms, have contributed to a growing economy, although economic growth slowed in recent years. From 2015 and continuing through 2016, Turkey witnessed an uptick in terrorist violence, including major attacks in Ankara, Istanbul, and throughout the predominantly Kurdish southeastern region of Turkey. On 15 July 2016, elements of the Turkish Armed forces attempted a coup that ultimately failed following widespread popular resistance. More than 240 people were killed and over 2,000 injured when Turkish citizens took to the streets en masse to confront the coup forces. The government accused followers of the Fethullah Gulen transnational religious and social movement ("Hizmet") for allegedly instigating the failed coup and designates the movement's followers as terrorists. Since the attempted coup, Turkish Government authorities arrested, suspended, or dismissed more than 130,000 security personnel, journalists, judges, academics, and civil servants due to their alleged connection to Gulen's movement. Following the failed coup, the Turkish Government instituted a State of Emergency from July 2016 to July 2018. The Turkish Government conducted a referendum on 16 April 2017 in which voters approved constitutional amendments changing Turkey from a parliamentary to a presidential system. The amendments went into effect fully following the presidential and parliamentary elections in June 2018. | Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French administered the area as Syria until granting it independence in 1946. The new country lacked political stability and experienced a series of military coups. Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab Republic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and the Syrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights region to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held occasional, albeit unsuccessful, peace talks over its return. In November 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD, a member of the socialist Ba'ath Party and the minority Alawi sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability to the country. Following the death of President Hafiz al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops - stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role - were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah. In May 2007, Bashar al-ASAD's second term as president was approved by popular referendum. Influenced by major uprisings that began elsewhere in the region, and compounded by additional social and economic factors, antigovernment protests broke out first in the southern province of Dar'a in March 2011 with protesters calling for the repeal of the restrictive Emergency Law allowing arrests without charge, the legalization of political parties, and the removal of corrupt local officials. Demonstrations and violent unrest spread across Syria with the size and intensity of protests fluctuating. The government responded to unrest with a mix of concessions - including the repeal of the Emergency Law, new laws permitting new political parties, and liberalizing local and national elections - and with military force and detentions. The government's efforts to quell unrest and armed opposition activity led to extended clashes and eventually civil war between government forces, their allies, and oppositionists. International pressure on the ASAD regime intensified after late 2011, as the Arab League, the EU, Turkey, and the US expanded economic sanctions against the regime and those entities that support it. In December 2012, the Syrian National Coalition, was recognized by more than 130 countries as the sole legitimate representative of the Syrian people. In September 2015, Russia launched a military intervention on behalf of the ASAD regime, and domestic and foreign government-aligned forces recaptured swaths of territory from opposition forces, and eventually the country's second largest city, Aleppo, in December 2016, shifting the conflict in the regime's favor. The regime, with this foreign support, also recaptured opposition strongholds in the Damascus suburbs and the southern province of Dar'a in 2018. The government lacks territorial control over much of the northeastern part of the country, which is dominated by the predominantly Kurdish Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF). The SDF has expanded its territorial hold over much of the northeast since 2014 as it has captured territory from the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. Since 2016, Turkey has also conducted three large-scale military operations into Syria, capturing territory along Syria's northern border in the provinces of Aleppo, Ar Raqqah, and Al Hasakah. Political negotiations between the government and opposition delegations at UN-sponsored Geneva conferences since 2014 have failed to produce a resolution of the conflict. Since early 2017, Iran, Russia, and Turkey have held separate political negotiations outside of UN auspices to attempt to reduce violence in Syria. According to an April 2016 UN estimate, the death toll among Syrian Government forces, opposition forces, and civilians was over 400,000, though other estimates placed the number well over 500,000. As of December 2019, approximately 6 million Syrians were internally displaced. Approximately 11.1 million people were in need of humanitarian assistance across the country, and an additional 5.7 million Syrians were registered refugees in Turkey, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and North Africa. The conflict in Syria remains one of the largest humanitarian crises worldwide. |
Geography
Turkey | Syria | |
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Location | Southeastern Europe and Southwestern Asia (that portion of Turkey west of the Bosporus is geographically part of Europe), bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria | Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Lebanon and Turkey |
Geographic coordinates | 39 00 N, 35 00 E | 35 00 N, 38 00 E |
Map references | Middle East | Middle East |
Area | total: 783,562 sq km land: 769,632 sq km water: 13,930 sq km | total: 187,437 sq km land: 185,887 sq km water: 1,550 sq km note: includes 1,295 sq km of Israeli-occupied territory |
Area - comparative | slightly larger than Texas | slightly more than 1.5 times the size of Pennsylvania |
Land boundaries | total: 2,816 km border countries (8): Armenia 311 km, Azerbaijan 17 km, Bulgaria 223 km, Georgia 273 km, Greece 192 km, Iran 534 km, Iraq 367 km, Syria 899 km | total: 2,363 km border countries (5): Iraq 599 km, Israel 83 km, Jordan 379 km, Lebanon 403 km, Turkey 899 km |
Coastline | 7,200 km | 193 km |
Maritime claims | territorial sea: 6 nm in the Aegean Sea exclusive economic zone: in Black Sea only: to the maritime boundary agreed upon with the former USSR 12 nm in Black Sea and in Mediterranean Sea | territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm |
Climate | temperate; hot, dry summers with mild, wet winters; harsher in interior | mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast; cold weather with snow or sleet periodically in Damascus |
Terrain | high central plateau (Anatolia); narrow coastal plain; several mountain ranges | primarily semiarid and desert plateau; narrow coastal plain; mountains in west |
Elevation extremes | highest point: Mount Ararat 5,137 m lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m mean elevation: 1,132 m | highest point: Mount Hermon (Jabal a-Shayk) 2,814 m lowest point: unnamed location near Lake Tiberias -208 m mean elevation: 514 m |
Natural resources | coal, iron ore, copper, chromium, antimony, mercury, gold, barite, borate, celestite (strontium), emery, feldspar, limestone, magnesite, marble, perlite, pumice, pyrites (sulfur), clay, arable land, hydropower | petroleum, phosphates, chrome and manganese ores, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, marble, gypsum, hydropower |
Land use | agricultural land: 49.7% (2018 est.) arable land: 26.7% (2018 est.) permanent crops: 4% (2018 est.) permanent pasture: 19% (2018 est.) forest: 14.9% (2018 est.) other: 35.4% (2018 est.) | agricultural land: 75.8% (2018 est.) arable land: 25.4% (2018 est.) permanent crops: 5.8% (2018 est.) permanent pasture: 44.6% (2018 est.) forest: 2.7% (2018 est.) other: 21.5% (2018 est.) |
Irrigated land | 52,150 sq km (2012) | 14,280 sq km (2012) |
Natural hazards | severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey, along an arc extending from the Sea of Marmara to Lake Van; landslides; flooding volcanism: limited volcanic activity; its three historically active volcanoes; Ararat, Nemrut Dagi, and Tendurek Dagi have not erupted since the 19th century or earlier | dust storms, sandstorms volcanism: Syria's two historically active volcanoes, Es Safa and an unnamed volcano near the Turkish border have not erupted in centuries |
Environment - current issues | water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas; deforestation; land degradation; concern for oil spills from increasing Bosporus ship traffic; conservation of biodiversity | deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; depletion of water resources; water pollution from raw sewage and petroleum refining wastes; inadequate potable water |
Environment - international agreements | party to: Air Pollution, Antarctic-Environmental Protection, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Environmental Modification | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping-London Convention, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification |
Geography - note | strategic location controlling the Turkish Straits (Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, Dardanelles) that link the Black and Aegean Seas; the 3% of Turkish territory north of the Straits lies in Europe and goes by the names of European Turkey, Eastern Thrace, or Turkish Thrace; the 97% of the country in Asia is referred to as Anatolia; Istanbul, which straddles the Bosporus, is the only metropolis in the world located on two continents; Mount Ararat, the legendary landing place of Noah's ark, is in the far eastern portion of the country | the capital of Damascus - located at an oasis fed by the Barada River - is thought to be one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities; there are 42 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the Israeli-controlled Golan Heights (2017) |
Total renewable water resources | 211.6 billion cubic meters (2017 est.) | 16.802 billion cubic meters (2017 est.) |
Population distribution | the most densely populated area is found around the Bosporus in the northwest where 20% of the population lives in Istanbul; with the exception of Ankara, urban centers remain small and scattered throughout the interior of Anatolia; an overall pattern of peripheral development exists, particularly along the Aegean Sea coast in the west, and the Tigris and Euphrates River systems in the southeast | significant population density along the Mediterranean coast; larger concentrations found in the major cities of Damascus, Aleppo (the country's largest city), and Hims (Homs); more than half of the population lives in the coastal plain, the province of Halab, and the Euphrates River valley note: the ongoing civil war has altered the population distribution |
Demographics
Turkey | Syria | |
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Population | 82,482,383 (July 2021 est.) | 20,384,316 (July 2021 est.) note: approximately 22,900 Israeli settlers live in the Golan Heights (2018) |
Age structure | 0-14 years: 23.41% (male 9,823,553/female 9,378,767) 15-24 years: 15.67% (male 6,564,263/female 6,286,615) 25-54 years: 43.31% (male 17,987,103/female 17,536,957) 55-64 years: 9.25% (male 3,764,878/female 3,822,946) 65 years and over: 8.35% (male 3,070,258/female 3,782,174) (2020 est.) | 0-14 years: 33.47% (male 3,323,072/female 3,170,444) 15-24 years: 19.34% (male 1,872,903/female 1,879,564) 25-54 years: 37.31% (male 3,558,241/female 3,679,596) 55-64 years: 5.41% (male 516,209/female 534,189) 65 years and over: 4.46% (male 404,813/female 459,417) (2020 est.) |
Median age | total: 32.2 years male: 31.7 years female: 32.8 years (2020 est.) | total: 23.5 years male: 23 years female: 24 years (2020 est.) |
Population growth rate | 0.7% (2021 est.) | 5.32% NA (2021 est.) |
Birth rate | 14.54 births/1,000 population (2021 est.) | 23.25 births/1,000 population (2021 est.) |
Death rate | 6.02 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.) | 4.36 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.) |
Net migration rate | -1.55 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.) | 34.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population NA (2021 est.) |
Sex ratio | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 0-14 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-24 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 25-54 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 55-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.81 male(s)/female total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2020 est.) | at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 0-14 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-24 years: 1 male(s)/female 25-54 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 55-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2020 est.) |
Infant mortality rate | total: 19.87 deaths/1,000 live births male: 21.58 deaths/1,000 live births female: 18.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2021 est.) | total: 16.27 deaths/1,000 live births male: 17.95 deaths/1,000 live births female: 14.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2021 est.) |
Life expectancy at birth | total population: 75.96 years male: 73.57 years female: 78.46 years (2021 est.) | total population: 74.01 years male: 72.54 years female: 75.57 years (2021 est.) |
Total fertility rate | 1.94 children born/woman (2021 est.) | 2.85 children born/woman (2021 est.) |
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate | NA | <.1% (2020) |
Nationality | noun: Turk(s) adjective: Turkish | noun: Syrian(s) adjective: Syrian |
Ethnic groups | Turkish 70-75%, Kurdish 19%, other minorities 7-12% (2016 est.) | Arab ~50%, Alawite ~15%, Kurd ~10%, Levantine ~10%, other ~15% (includes Druze, Ismaili, Imami, Nusairi, Assyrian, Turkoman, Armenian) |
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | NA | <1,000 (2020) |
Religions | Muslim 99.8% (mostly Sunni), other 0.2% (mostly Christians and Jews) | Muslim 87% (official; includes Sunni 74% and Alawi, Ismaili, and Shia 13%), Christian 10% (includes Orthodox, Uniate, and Nestorian), Druze 3% note: the Christian population may be considerably smaller as a result of Christians fleeing the country during the ongoing civil war |
HIV/AIDS - deaths | NA | <100 (2020) |
Languages | Turkish (official), Kurdish, other minority languages major-language sample(s): The World Factbook, temel bilgi edinmek için vazgeçilmez bir kaynak. (Turkish) The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information. | Arabic (official), Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian, French, English major-language sample(s): ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ????????? ???????? (Arabic) The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information. |
Literacy | definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 96.2% male: 98.8% female: 93.5% (2017) | definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 86.4% male: 91.7% female: 81% (2015) |
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) | total: 18 years male: 19 years female: 18 years (2018) | total: 9 years male: 9 years female: 9 years (2013) |
Education expenditures | 4.3% of GDP (2015) | NA |
Urbanization | urban population: 76.6% of total population (2021) rate of urbanization: 1.11% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.) | urban population: 56.1% of total population (2021) rate of urbanization: 5.38% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.) |
Drinking water source | improved: urban: 98.6% of population rural: 100% of population total: 98.9% of population unimproved: urban: 1.4% of population rural: 0% of population total: 1.1% of population (2017 est.) | improved: urban: 99% of population rural: 99.3% of population total: 99.4% of population unimproved: urban: 1% of population rural: 0.7% of population total: 0.6% of population (2017 est.) |
Sanitation facility access | improved: urban: 100% of population rural: 91.6% of population total: 97.3% of population unimproved: urban: 0% of population rural: 8.4% of population total: 2.7% of population (2017 est.) | improved: urban: 99.6% of population rural: 98.6% of population total: 99.1% of population unimproved: urban: 0.4% of population rural: 1.4% of population total: 0.9% of population (2017 est.) |
Major cities - population | 15.190 million Istanbul, 5.118 million ANKARA (capital), 2.993 million Izmir, 1.986 million Bursa, 1.771 million Adana, 1.704 million Gaziantep (2020) | 2.440 million DAMASCUS (capital), 2.004 million Aleppo, 1.362 million Hims (Homs), 940,000 Hamah (2021) |
Maternal mortality rate | 17 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.) | 31 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.) |
Children under the age of 5 years underweight | 1.5% (2018/19) | 5.8% (2009/10) |
Physicians density | 1.85 physicians/1,000 population (2017) | 1.29 physicians/1,000 population (2016) |
Hospital bed density | 2.8 beds/1,000 population (2017) | 1.4 beds/1,000 population (2017) |
Obesity - adult prevalence rate | 32.1% (2016) | 27.8% (2016) |
Dependency ratios | total dependency ratio: 49.1 youth dependency ratio: 35.7 elderly dependency ratio: 13.4 potential support ratio: 7.5 (2020 est.) | total dependency ratio: 55.4 youth dependency ratio: 47.8 elderly dependency ratio: 7.6 potential support ratio: 13.2 (2020 est.) |
Government
Turkey | Syria | |
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Country name | conventional long form: Republic of Turkey conventional short form: Turkey local long form: Turkiye Cumhuriyeti local short form: Turkiye etymology: the name means "Land of the Turks" | conventional long form: Syrian Arab Republic conventional short form: Syria local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Arabiyah as Suriyah local short form: Suriyah former: United Arab Republic (with Egypt) etymology: name ultimately derived from the ancient Assyrians who dominated northern Mesopotamia, but whose reach also extended westward to the Levant; over time, the name came to be associated more with the western area |
Government type | presidential republic | presidential republic; highly authoritarian regime |
Capital | name: Ankara geographic coordinates: 39 56 N, 32 52 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time) etymology: Ankara has been linked with a second millennium B.C. Hittite cult center of Ankuwash, although this connection is uncertain; in classical and medieval times, the city was known as Ankyra (meaning "anchor" in Greek and reflecting the city's position as a junction for multiple trade and military routes); by about the 13th century the city began to be referred to as Angora; following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the city's name became Ankara | name: Damascus geographic coordinates: 33 30 N, 36 18 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins midnight on the last Friday in March; ends at midnight on the last Friday in October etymology: Damascus is a very old city; its earliest name, Temeseq, first appears in an Egyptian geographical list of the 15th century B.C., but the meaning is uncertain |
Administrative divisions | 81 provinces (iller, singular - ili); Adana, Adiyaman, Afyonkarahisar, Agri, Aksaray, Amasya, Ankara, Antalya, Ardahan, Artvin, Aydin, Balikesir, Bartin, Batman, Bayburt, Bilecik, Bingol, Bitlis, Bolu, Burdur, Bursa, Canakkale, Cankiri, Corum, Denizli, Diyarbakir, Duzce, Edirne, Elazig, Erzincan, Erzurum, Eskisehir, Gaziantep, Giresun, Gumushane, Hakkari, Hatay, Igdir, Isparta, Istanbul, Izmir (Smyrna), Kahramanmaras, Karabuk, Karaman, Kars, Kastamonu, Kayseri, Kilis, Kirikkale, Kirklareli, Kirsehir, Kocaeli, Konya, Kutahya, Malatya, Manisa, Mardin, Mersin, Mugla, Mus, Nevsehir, Nigde, Ordu, Osmaniye, Rize, Sakarya, Samsun, Sanliurfa, Siirt, Sinop, Sirnak, Sivas, Tekirdag, Tokat, Trabzon (Trebizond), Tunceli, Usak, Van, Yalova, Yozgat, Zonguldak | 14 provinces (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Hasakah, Al Ladhiqiyah (Latakia), Al Qunaytirah, Ar Raqqah, As Suwayda', Dar'a, Dayr az Zawr, Dimashq (Damascus), Halab (Aleppo), Hamah, Hims (Homs), Idlib, Rif Dimashq (Damascus Countryside), Tartus |
Independence | 29 October 1923 (republic proclaimed, succeeding the Ottoman Empire) | 17 April 1946 (from League of Nations mandate under French administration) |
National holiday | Republic Day, 29 October (1923) | Independence Day (Evacuation Day), 17 April (1946); note - celebrates the leaving of the last French troops and the proclamation of full independence |
Constitution | history: several previous; latest ratified 9 November 1982 amendments: proposed by written consent of at least one third of Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM) members; adoption of draft amendments requires two debates in plenary TBMM session and three-fifths majority vote of all GNA members; the president of the republic can request TBMM reconsideration of the amendment and, if readopted by two-thirds majority TBMM vote, the president may submit the amendment to a referendum; passage by referendum requires absolute majority vote; amended several times, last in 2017 | history: several previous; latest issued 15 February 2012, passed by referendum and effective 27 February 2012; note - in late January 2021, UN-sponsored talks, which began in late 2019 between delegates from government and opposition forces to draft a new constitution, resumed following a delay in mid-2020 because several delegates tested positive for the COVID-19 virus amendments: proposed by the president of the republic or by one third of the People's Assembly members; following review by a special Assembly committee, passage requires at least three-quarters majority vote by the Assembly and approval by the president |
Legal system | civil law system based on various European legal systems, notably the Swiss civil code | mixed legal system of civil and Islamic (sharia) law (for family courts) |
Suffrage | 18 years of age; universal | 18 years of age; universal |
Executive branch | chief of state: President Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN (chief of state since 28 August 2014; head of government since 9 July 2019); Vice President Fuat OKTAY (since 9 July 2018); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government head of government: President Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN (head of government since 9 July 2019; chief of state since 28 August 2014); note - a 2017 constitutional referendum eliminated the post of prime minister after the 2018 general election cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections/appointments: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote in 2 rounds if needed for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 24 June 2018 (next scheduled for June 2023) election results: Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN reelected president in the first round; Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN (AKP) 52.6%, Muharrem INCE (CHP) 30.6%, Selahattin DEMIRTAS (HDP) 8.4%, Meral AKSENER (IYI) 7.3%, other 1.1% | chief of state: President Bashar al-ASAD (since 17 July 2000); Vice President Najah al-ATTAR (since 23 March 2006) head of government: Prime Minister Hussein ARNOUS (since 30 August 2020); Deputy Prime Minister Ali Abdullah AYOUB (Gen.) (since 30 August 2020) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections/appointments: president directly elected by simple majority popular vote for a 7-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 26 May 2021(next to be held in 2028); the president appoints the vice presidents, prime minister, and deputy prime ministers election results: Bashar al-ASAD elected president; percent of vote - Bashar al-ASAD (Ba'th Party)95.2%, Mahmoud Ahmad MAREI (Democratic Arab Socialist Union) 3.3%, Abdullah Sallum ABDULLAH (Socialist Unionist Party) 1.5% |
Legislative branch | description: unicameral Grand National Assembly of Turkey or Turkiye Buyuk Millet Meclisi (600 seats - increased from 550 seats beginning with June 2018 election; members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by proportional representation vote to serve 5-year terms - increased from 4 to 5 years beginning with June 2018 election) elections: last held on 24 June 2018 (next to be held in June 2023) election results: percent of vote by party - People's Alliance 53.7% (AKP 42.6%, MHP 11.1%), Nation Alliance 33.9% (CHP 22.6%, IYI 10%, SP 1.3%), HDP 11.7%, other 0.7%; seats by party - People's Alliance 344 (AKP 295, MHP 49), National Alliance 189 (CHP 146, IYI 43), HDP 67; composition - men 496, women 104, percent of women 17.3%; note - only parties surpassing a 10% threshold can win parliamentary seats | description: unicameral People's Assembly or Majlis al-Shaab (250 seats; members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by simple majority preferential vote to serve 4-year terms) elections: last held on 19 July 2020 (next to be held in 2024) election results: percent of vote by party - NPF 80%, other 20%; seats by party - NPF 200, other 50; composition - men 217, women 33, percent of women 13.2% |
Judicial branch | highest courts: Constitutional Court or Anayasa Mahkemesi (consists of the president, 2 vice presidents, and 12 judges); Court of Cassation (consists of about 390 judges and is organized into civil and penal chambers); Council of State (organized into 15 divisions - 14 judicial and 1 consultative - each with a division head and at least 5 members) judge selection and term of office: Constitutional Court members - 3 appointed by the Grand National Assembly and 12 by the president of the republic; court president and 2 deputy court presidents appointed from among its members for 4-year terms; judges serve 12-year, nonrenewable terms with mandatory retirement at age 65; Court of Cassation judges appointed by the Board of Judges and Prosecutors, a 13-member body of judicial officials; Court of Cassation judges serve until retirement at age 65; Council of State members appointed by the Board and by the president of the republic; members serve renewable, 4-year terms subordinate courts: regional appeals courts; basic (first instance) courts; peace courts; aggravated crime courts; specialized courts, including administrative and audit; note - a constitutional amendment in 2017 abolished military courts unless established to investigate military personnel actions during war conditions | highest courts: Court of Cassation (organized into civil, criminal, religious, and military divisions, each with 3 judges); Supreme Constitutional Court (consists of 7 members) judge selection and term of office: Court of Cassation judges appointed by the Supreme Judicial Council (SJC), a judicial management body headed by the minister of justice with 7 members, including the national president; judge tenure NA; Supreme Constitutional Court judges nominated by the president and appointed by the SJC; judges serve 4-year renewable terms subordinate courts: courts of first instance; magistrates' courts; religious and military courts; Economic Security Court; Counterterrorism Court (established June 2012) |
Political parties and leaders | Democrat Party or DP [Gultekin UYSAL] Democratic Regions Party or DBP [Sebahat TUNCEL, Mehmet ARSLAN] Felicity Party or SP [Temel KARAMOLLAOGLU] Free Cause Party or HUDAPAR [Ishak SAGLAM] Good Party or TYIi [Meral AKSENER] Grand Unity Party or BBP [Mustafa DESTICI] Justice and Development Party or AKP [Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN] Nation Alliance (CHP, IYI, SP) (electoral alliance) Nationalist Movement Party or MHP [Devlet BAHCELI] People's Alliance (AKP, MHP) (electoral alliance) Patriotic Party or VP [Dogu PERINCEK] Peoples' Democratic Party or HDP [Pervin BULDAN, Sezai TEMELLI] Republican People's Party or CHP [Kemal KILICDAROGLU] note: as of December 2018, 83 political parties were legally registered | legal parties/alliances: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party [Bashar al-ASAD, regional secretary] Arab Socialist Renaissance (Ba'th) Party [President Bashar al-ASAD] Arab Socialist Union of Syria or ASU [Safwan al-QUDSI] Democratic Arab Socialist Union [Hassan Abdul AZIM, general secretary] National Progressive Front or NPF [Bashar al-ASAD, Suleiman QADDAH] (alliance includes Arab Socialist Renaissance (Ba'th) Party, Socialist Unionist Democratic Party) Socialist Unionist Party [Fayiz ISMAIL] Socialist Unionist Democratic Party [Fadlallah Nasr al-DIN] Syrian Communist Party (two branches) [Wissal Farha BAKDASH, Yusuf Rashid FAYSAL] Syrian Social Nationalist Party or SSNP [Ali HAIDAR] Unionist Socialist Party [Fayez ISMAIL] Major Kurdish parties Kurdish Democratic Union Party or PYD [Shahoz HASAN and Aysha HISSO] Kurdish National Council [Sa'ud MALA] other: Syrian Democratic Party [Mustafa QALAAJI] |
International organization participation | ADB (nonregional member), Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, CBSS (observer), CD, CE, CERN (observer), CICA, CPLP (associate observer), D-8, EAPC, EBRD, ECO, EU (candidate country), FAO, FATF, G-20, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, Pacific Alliance (observer), Paris Club (associate), PCA, PIF (partner), SCO (dialogue member), SELEC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, ZC | ABEDA, AFESD, AMF, CAEU, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, ICSID, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WBG, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (observer) |
Diplomatic representation in the US | chief of mission: Ambassador Hasan MURAT MERCAN (since 20 April 2021) chancery: 2525 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 612-6700; [1] (202) 612-6701 FAX: [1] (202) 612-6744 email address and website: embassy.washingtondc@mfa.gov.tr http://washington.emb.mfa.gov.tr/Mission consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York | chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); note - embassy closed in March 2014 chancery: 2215 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 232-6313 FAX: [1] (202) 234-9548 note: Embassy ceased operations and closed on 18 March 2014 |
Diplomatic representation from the US | chief of mission: Ambassador David M. SATTERFIELD (since 28 August 2019) embassy: 110 Ataturk Boulevard, Kavaklidere, 06100 Ankara mailing address: 7000 Ankara Place, Washington DC 20512-7000 telephone: [90] (312) 455-5555 FAX: [90] (312) 467-0019 email address and website: Ankara-ACS@state.gov https://tr.usembassy.gov/ consulate(s) general: Istanbul consulate(s): Adana | chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); note - on 6 February 2012, the US closed its embassy in Damascus; Czechia serves as a protecting power for US interests in Syria embassy: Abou Roumaneh, 2 Al Mansour Street, Damascus mailing address: 6110 Damascus Place, Washington DC 20521-6110 email address and website: USIS_damascus@embassy.mzv.cz https://sy.usembassy.gov/ |
Flag description | red with a vertical white crescent moon (the closed portion is toward the hoist side) and white five-pointed star centered just outside the crescent opening; the flag colors and designs closely resemble those on the banner of the Ottoman Empire, which preceded modern-day Turkey; the crescent moon and star serve as insignia for Turkic peoples; according to one interpretation, the flag represents the reflection of the moon and a star in a pool of blood of Turkish warriors | three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; two small, green, five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); identical to the former flag of the United Arab Republic (1958-1961) where the two stars represented the constituent states of Syria and Egypt; the current design dates to 1980 note: similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band; Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band; and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band |
National anthem | name: "Istiklal Marsi" (Independence March) lyrics/music: Mehmet Akif ERSOY/Zeki UNGOR note: lyrics adopted 1921, music adopted 1932; the anthem's original music was adopted in 1924; a new composition was agreed upon in 1932 | name: "Humat ad-Diyar" (Guardians of the Homeland) lyrics/music: Khalil Mardam BEY/Mohammad Salim FLAYFEL and Ahmad Salim FLAYFEL note: adopted 1936, restored 1961; between 1958 and 1961, while Syria was a member of the United Arab Republic with Egypt, the country had a different anthem |
International law organization participation | has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt | has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICC |
National symbol(s) | vertical crescent moon with adjacent five-pointed star; national colors: red, white | hawk; national colors: red, white, black, green |
Citizenship | citizenship by birth: no citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Turkey dual citizenship recognized: yes, but requires prior permission from the government residency requirement for naturalization: 5 years | citizenship by birth: no citizenship by descent only: the father must be a citizen of Syria; if the father is unknown or stateless, the mother must be a citizen of Syria dual citizenship recognized: yes residency requirement for naturalization: 10 years |
Economy
Turkey | Syria | |
---|---|---|
Economy - overview | Turkey's largely free-market economy is driven by its industry and, increasingly, service sectors, although its traditional agriculture sector still accounts for about 25% of employment. The automotive, petrochemical, and electronics industries have risen in importance and surpassed the traditional textiles and clothing sectors within Turkey's export mix. However, the recent period of political stability and economic dynamism has given way to domestic uncertainty and security concerns, which are generating financial market volatility and weighing on Turkey's economic outlook. Current government policies emphasize populist spending measures and credit breaks, while implementation of structural economic reforms has slowed. The government is playing a more active role in some strategic sectors and has used economic institutions and regulators to target political opponents, undermining private sector confidence in the judicial system. Between July 2016 and March 2017, three credit ratings agencies downgraded Turkey's sovereign credit ratings, citing concerns about the rule of law and the pace of economic reforms. Turkey remains highly dependent on imported oil and gas but is pursuing energy relationships with a broader set of international partners and taking steps to increase use of domestic energy sources including renewables, nuclear, and coal. The joint Turkish-Azerbaijani Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline is moving forward to increase transport of Caspian gas to Turkey and Europe, and when completed will help diversify Turkey's sources of imported gas. After Turkey experienced a severe financial crisis in 2001, Ankara adopted financial and fiscal reforms as part of an IMF program. The reforms strengthened the country's economic fundamentals and ushered in an era of strong growth, averaging more than 6% annually until 2008. An aggressive privatization program also reduced state involvement in basic industry, banking, transport, power generation, and communication. Global economic conditions and tighter fiscal policy caused GDP to contract in 2009, but Turkey's well-regulated financial markets and banking system helped the country weather the global financial crisis, and GDP growth rebounded to around 9% in 2010 and 2011, as exports and investment recovered following the crisis. The growth of Turkish GDP since 2016 has revealed the persistent underlying imbalances in the Turkish economy. In particular, Turkey's large current account deficit means it must rely on external investment inflows to finance growth, leaving the economy vulnerable to destabilizing shifts in investor confidence. Other troublesome trends include rising unemployment and inflation, which increased in 2017, given the Turkish lira's continuing depreciation against the dollar. Although government debt remains low at about 30% of GDP, bank and corporate borrowing has almost tripled as a percent of GDP during the past decade, outpacing its emerging-market peers and prompting investor concerns about its long-term sustainability. | Syria's economy has deeply deteriorated amid the ongoing conflict that began in 2011, declining by more than 70% from 2010 to 2017. The government has struggled to fully address the effects of international sanctions, widespread infrastructure damage, diminished domestic consumption and production, reduced subsidies, and high inflation, which have caused dwindling foreign exchange reserves, rising budget and trade deficits, a decreasing value of the Syrian pound, and falling household purchasing power. In 2017, some economic indicators began to stabilize, including the exchange rate and inflation, but economic activity remains depressed and GDP almost certainly fell. During 2017, the ongoing conflict and continued unrest and economic decline worsened the humanitarian crisis, necessitating high levels of international assistance, as more than 13 million people remain in need inside Syria, and the number of registered Syrian refugees increased from 4.8 million in 2016 to more than 5.4 million. Prior to the turmoil, Damascus had begun liberalizing economic policies, including cutting lending interest rates, opening private banks, consolidating multiple exchange rates, raising prices on some subsidized items, and establishing the Damascus Stock Exchange, but the economy remains highly regulated. Long-run economic constraints include foreign trade barriers, declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget deficits, increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, industrial contaction, water pollution, and widespread infrastructure damage. |
GDP (purchasing power parity) | $2,371,374,000,000 (2019 est.) $2,349,836,000,000 (2018 est.) $2,282,304,000,000 (2017 est.) note: data are in 2010 dollars | $50.28 billion (2015 est.) $55.8 billion (2014 est.) $61.9 billion (2013 est.) note: data are in 2015 US dollars the war-driven deterioration of the economy resulted in a disappearance of quality national level statistics in the 2012-13 period |
GDP - real growth rate | 0.98% (2019 est.) 3.04% (2018 est.) 7.54% (2017 est.) | -36.5% (2014 est.) -30.9% (2013 est.) note: data are in 2015 dollars |
GDP - per capita (PPP) | $28,424 (2019 est.) $28,545 (2018 est.) $28,141 (2017 est.) note: data are in 2010 dollars | $2,900 (2015 est.) $3,300 (2014 est.) $2,800 (2013 est.) note: data are in 2015 US dollars |
GDP - composition by sector | agriculture: 6.8% (2017 est.) industry: 32.3% (2017 est.) services: 60.7% (2017 est.) | agriculture: 20% (2017 est.) industry: 19.5% (2017 est.) services: 60.8% (2017 est.) |
Population below poverty line | 14.4% (2018 est.) | 82.5% (2014 est.) |
Household income or consumption by percentage share | lowest 10%: 2.1% highest 10%: 30.3% (2008) | lowest 10%: NA highest 10%: NA |
Inflation rate (consumer prices) | 15.4% (2019 est.) 16.2% (2018 est.) 11.1% (2017 est.) | 28.1% (2017 est.) 47.3% (2016 est.) |
Labor force | 25.677 million (2020 est.) note: this number is for the domestic labor force only; number does not include about 1.2 million Turks working abroad, nor refugees | 3.767 million (2017 est.) |
Labor force - by occupation | agriculture: 18.4% industry: 26.6% services: 54.9% (2016) | agriculture: 17% industry: 16% services: 67% (2008 est.) |
Unemployment rate | 13.68% (2019 est.) 11% (2018 est.) | 50% (2017 est.) 50% (2016 est.) |
Budget | revenues: 172.8 billion (2017 est.) expenditures: 185.8 billion (2017 est.) | revenues: 1.162 billion (2017 est.) expenditures: 3.211 billion (2017 est.) note: government projections for FY2016 |
Industries | textiles, food processing, automobiles, electronics, mining (coal, chromate, copper, boron), steel, petroleum, construction, lumber, paper | petroleum, textiles, food processing, beverages, tobacco, phosphate rock mining, cement, oil seeds crushing, automobile assembly |
Industrial production growth rate | 9.1% (2017 est.) | 4.3% (2017 est.) |
Agriculture - products | milk, wheat, sugar beet, tomatoes, barley, maize, potatoes, grapes, watermelons, apples | wheat, barley, milk, olives, tomatoes, oranges, potatoes, sheep milk, lemons, limes |
Exports | $310.671 billion (2019 est.) $296.288 billion (2018 est.) $271.866 billion (2017 est.) | $1.85 billion (2017 est.) $1.705 billion (2016 est.) |
Exports - commodities | cars and vehicle parts, refined petroleum, delivery trucks, jewelry, clothing and apparel (2019) | olive oil, cumin seeds, pistachios, tomatoes, apples, pears, spices, pitted fruits (2019) |
Exports - partners | Germany 9%, United Kingdom 6%, Iraq 5%, Italy 5%, United States 5% (2019) | Saudi Arabia 23%, Turkey 18%, Egypt 14%, United Arab Emirates 8%, Jordan 7%, Kuwait 5% (2019) |
Imports | $258.385 billion (2019 est.) $272.933 billion (2018 est.) $291.523 billion (2017 est.) | $6.279 billion (2017 est.) $5.496 billion (2016 est.) |
Imports - commodities | gold, refined petroleum, crude petroleum, vehicle parts, scrap iron (2019) | cigarettes, broadcasting equipment, wheat flours, sunflower oil, refined petroleum (2019) |
Imports - partners | Germany 11%, China 9%, Russia 9%, United States 5%, Italy 5% (2019) | Turkey 27%, China 22%, United Arab Emirates 14%, Egypt 5% (2019) |
Debt - external | $438.677 billion (2019 est.) $454.251 billion (2018 est.) | $4.989 billion (31 December 2017 est.) $5.085 billion (31 December 2016 est.) |
Exchange rates | Turkish liras (TRY) per US dollar - 7.81925 (2020 est.) 5.8149 (2019 est.) 5.28905 (2018 est.) 2.72 (2014 est.) 2.1885 (2013 est.) | Syrian pounds (SYP) per US dollar - 514.6 (2017 est.) 459.2 (2016 est.) 459.2 (2015 est.) 236.41 (2014 est.) 153.695 (2013 est.) |
Fiscal year | calendar year | calendar year |
Public debt | 28.3% of GDP (2017 est.) 28.3% of GDP (2016 est.) | 94.8% of GDP (2017 est.) 91.3% of GDP (2016 est.) |
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | $107.7 billion (31 December 2017 est.) $106.1 billion (31 December 2016 est.) | $407.3 million (31 December 2017 est.) $504.6 million (31 December 2016 est.) |
Current Account Balance | $8.561 billion (2019 est.) -$20.745 billion (2018 est.) | -$2.123 billion (2017 est.) -$2.077 billion (2016 est.) |
GDP (official exchange rate) | $760.028 billion (2019 est.) | $24.6 billion (2014 est.) |
Ease of Doing Business Index scores | Overall score: 76.8 (2020) Starting a Business score: 88.8 (2020) Trading score: 91.6 (2020) Enforcement score: 71.4 (2020) | Overall score: 42 (2020) Starting a Business score: 80.1 (2020) Trading score: 29.8 (2020) Enforcement score: 42.6 (2020) |
Taxes and other revenues | 20.3% (of GDP) (2017 est.) | 4.2% (of GDP) (2017 est.) |
Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-) | -1.5% (of GDP) (2017 est.) | -8.7% (of GDP) (2017 est.) |
Unemployment, youth ages 15-24 | total: 25.2% male: 22.4% female: 30.3% (2019 est.) | total: 35.8% male: 26.6% female: 71.1% (2011 est.) |
GDP - composition, by end use | household consumption: 59.1% (2017 est.) government consumption: 14.5% (2017 est.) investment in fixed capital: 29.8% (2017 est.) investment in inventories: 1.1% (2017 est.) exports of goods and services: 24.9% (2017 est.) imports of goods and services: -29.4% (2017 est.) | household consumption: 73.1% (2017 est.) government consumption: 26% (2017 est.) investment in fixed capital: 18.6% (2017 est.) investment in inventories: 12.3% (2017 est.) exports of goods and services: 16.1% (2017 est.) imports of goods and services: -46.1% (2017 est.) |
Gross national saving | 26% of GDP (2019 est.) 27.7% of GDP (2018 est.) 26% of GDP (2017 est.) | 17% of GDP (2017 est.) 15.3% of GDP (2016 est.) 16.1% of GDP (2015 est.) |
Energy
Turkey | Syria | |
---|---|---|
Electricity - production | 261.9 billion kWh (2016 est.) | 17.07 billion kWh (2016 est.) |
Electricity - consumption | 231.1 billion kWh (2016 est.) | 14.16 billion kWh (2016 est.) |
Electricity - exports | 1.442 billion kWh (2016 est.) | 262 million kWh (2015 est.) |
Electricity - imports | 6.33 billion kWh (2016 est.) | 0 kWh (2016 est.) |
Oil - production | 55,000 bbl/day (2018 est.) | 25,000 bbl/day (2018 est.) |
Oil - imports | 521,500 bbl/day (2017 est.) | 87,660 bbl/day (2015 est.) |
Oil - exports | 0 bbl/day (2017 est.) | 0 bbl/day (2015 est.) |
Oil - proved reserves | 341.6 million bbl (1 January 2018 est.) | 2.5 billion bbl (1 January 2018 est.) |
Natural gas - proved reserves | 5.097 billion cu m (1 January 2018 est.) | 240.7 billion cu m (1 January 2018 est.) |
Natural gas - production | 368.1 million cu m (2017 est.) | 3.738 billion cu m (2017 est.) |
Natural gas - consumption | 53.6 billion cu m (2017 est.) | 3.738 billion cu m (2017 est.) |
Natural gas - exports | 622.9 million cu m (2017 est.) | 0 cu m (2017 est.) |
Natural gas - imports | 55.13 billion cu m (2017 est.) | 0 cu m (2017 est.) |
Electricity - installed generating capacity | 78.5 million kW (2016 est.) | 9.058 million kW (2016 est.) |
Electricity - from fossil fuels | 53% of total installed capacity (2016 est.) | 83% of total installed capacity (2016 est.) |
Electricity - from hydroelectric plants | 33% of total installed capacity (2017 est.) | 17% of total installed capacity (2017 est.) |
Electricity - from nuclear fuels | 0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.) | 0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.) |
Electricity - from other renewable sources | 14% of total installed capacity (2017 est.) | 0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.) |
Refined petroleum products - production | 657,900 bbl/day (2017 est.) | 111,600 bbl/day (2015 est.) |
Refined petroleum products - consumption | 989,900 bbl/day (2017 est.) | 134,000 bbl/day (2016 est.) |
Refined petroleum products - exports | 141,600 bbl/day (2017 est.) | 12,520 bbl/day (2015 est.) |
Refined petroleum products - imports | 560,000 bbl/day (2017 est.) | 38,080 bbl/day (2015 est.) |
Electricity access | electrification - total population: 100% (2020) | electrification - total population: 92% (2019) electrification - urban areas: 100% (2019) electrification - rural areas: 84% (2019) |
Telecommunications
Turkey | Syria | |
---|---|---|
Telephones - main lines in use | total subscriptions: 11,532,903 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 14.13 (2019 est.) | total subscriptions: 2,843,103 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 15.3 (2019 est.) |
Telephones - mobile cellular | total subscriptions: 80,790,877 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 98.97 (2019 est.) | total subscriptions: 21.115 million subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 113.58 (2019 est.) |
Internet country code | .tr | .sy |
Internet users | total: 57,725,143 percent of population: 71.04% (July 2018 est.) | total: 6,077,510 percent of population: 34.25% (July 2018 est.) |
Telecommunication systems | general assessment: following earthquake damage to infrastructure in 2020, telecom sector undergoing rapid modernization and expansion, especially in mobile-cellular services; mobile broadband becoming increasingly popular; near saturation of 4G LTE coverage for the population; strides made with 5G through investment by Huawei and Ericcson; fixed and mobile infrastructure will help to underpin Smart City initiatives; tight government control on social media platforms; importer of broadcasting equipment and computers from China (2021) (2020)domestic: additional digital exchanges are permitting a rapid increase in subscribers; the construction of a network of technologically advanced intercity trunk lines, using both fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay, is facilitating communication between urban centers; remote areas are reached by a domestic satellite system; fixed-line 14 per 100 and mobile-cellular teledensity is 97 telephones per 100 persons (2019) international: country code - 90; landing points for the SeaMeWe-3 & -5, MedNautilus Submarine System, Turcyos-1 & -2 submarine cables providing connectivity to Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia ; satellite earth stations - 12 Intelsat; mobile satellite terminals - 328 in the Inmarsat and Eutelsat systems (2020) note: the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a significant impact on production and supply chains globally; since 2020, some aspects of the telecom sector have experienced downturn, particularly in mobile device production; many network operators delayed upgrades to infrastructure; progress towards 5G implementation was postponed or slowed in some countries; consumer spending on telecom services and devices was affected by large-scale job losses and the consequent restriction on disposable incomes; the crucial nature of telecom services as a tool for work and school from home became evident, and received some support from governments | general assessment: Syria's telecom sector has paid a heavy toll from years of civil war and destruction leading to major disruptions to the network; operators focusing on rebuilding damaged networks, though lack of basic infrastructure, including power and security, hamper efforts; fairly high mobile penetration for region; remote areas rely on expensive satellite communications; mobile broadband infrastructure is predominantly 3G for about 85% of the population with some LTE ; international aid network provides emergency Internet and telecom services when necessary; government restrictions of Internet freedom; major importer of broadcasting equipment from UAE (2021) (2020)domestic: the number of fixed-line connections increased markedly prior to the civil war in 2011 and now stands at 17 per 100; mobile-cellular service stands at about 114 per 100 persons (2019) international: country code - 963; landing points for the Aletar, BERYTAR and UGART submarine cable connections to Egypt, Lebanon, and Cyprus; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey; participant in Medarabtel (2019) note: the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a significant impact on production and supply chains globally; since 2020, some aspects of the telecom sector have experienced downturn, particularly in mobile device production; many network operators delayed upgrades to infrastructure; progress towards 5G implementation was postponed or slowed in some countries; consumer spending on telecom services and devices was affected by large-scale job losses and the consequent restriction on disposable incomes; the crucial nature of telecom services as a tool for work and school from home became evident, and received some support from governments |
Broadband - fixed subscriptions | total: 14,231,978 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 17.44 (2019 est.) | total: 1,490,344 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 8.02 (2019 est.) |
Broadcast media | Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) operates multiple TV and radio networks and stations; multiple privately owned national television stations and 567 private regional and local television stations; multi-channel cable TV subscriptions available; 1,007 private radio broadcast stations (2019) | state-run TV and radio broadcast networks; state operates 2 TV networks and 5 satellite channels; roughly two-thirds of Syrian homes have a satellite dish providing access to foreign TV broadcasts; 3 state-run radio channels; first private radio station launched in 2005; private radio broadcasters prohibited from transmitting news or political content (2018) |
Transportation
Turkey | Syria | |
---|---|---|
Railways | total: 12,710 km (2018) standard gauge: 11,497 km 1.435-m gauge (1.435 km high speed train) (2018) | total: 2,052 km (2014) standard gauge: 1,801 km 1.435-m gauge (2014) narrow gauge: 251 km 1.050-m gauge (2014) |
Roadways | total: 67,333 km (2018) paved: 24,082 km (includes 2,159 km of expressways) (2018) unpaved: 43,251 km (2018) | total: 69,873 km (2010) paved: 63,060 km (2010) unpaved: 6,813 km (2010) |
Waterways | 1,200 km (2010) | 900 km (navigable but not economically significant) (2011) |
Pipelines | 14,666 km gas, 3,293 km oil (2017) | 3170 km gas, 2029 km oil (2013) |
Ports and terminals | major seaport(s): Aliaga, Ambarli, Diliskelesi, Eregli, Izmir, Kocaeli (Izmit), Mersin (Icel), Limani, Yarimca container port(s) (TEUs): Ambarli (3,104,882), Mersin (Icel) (1,854,312), Izmet (1,715,193) (2019) LNG terminal(s) (import): Izmir Aliaga, Marmara Ereglisi | major seaport(s): Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus |
Merchant marine | total: 1,216 by type: bulk carrier 50, container ship 42, general cargo 338, oil tanker 121, other 665 (2020) | total: 26 by type: bulk carrier 1, general cargo 11, other 14 (2020) |
Airports | total: 98 (2013) | total: 90 (2013) |
Airports - with paved runways | total: 91 (2013) over 3,047 m: 16 (2013) 2,438 to 3,047 m: 38 (2013) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 17 (2013) 914 to 1,523 m: 16 (2013) under 914 m: 4 (2013) | total: 29 (2013) over 3,047 m: 5 (2013) 2,438 to 3,047 m: 16 (2013) 914 to 1,523 m: 3 (2013) under 914 m: 5 (2013) |
Airports - with unpaved runways | total: 7 (2013) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2013) 914 to 1,523 m: 4 (2013) under 914 m: 2 (2013) | total: 61 (2013) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2013) 914 to 1,523 m: 12 (2013) under 914 m: 48 (2013) |
Heliports | 20 (2013) | 6 (2013) |
National air transport system | number of registered air carriers: 11 (2020) inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 618 annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 115,595,495 (2018) annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 5,949,210,000 mt-km (2018) | number of registered air carriers: 3 (2020) inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 11 annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 17,896 (2018) annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 30,000 mt-km (2018) |
Civil aircraft registration country code prefix | TC | YK |
Military
Turkey | Syria | |
---|---|---|
Military branches | Turkish Armed Forces (TSK): Turkish Land Forces (Turk Kara Kuvvetleri), Turkish Naval Forces (Turk Deniz Kuvvetleri; includes naval air and naval infantry), Turkish Air Forces (Turk Hava Kuvvetleri); Ministry of Interior: Gendarmerie of the Turkish Republic, Turkish Coast Guard Command (2021) note: in wartime, the Gendarmerie and Coast Guard would be placed under the operational control of the Land Forces and Naval Forces, respectively | Syrian Armed Forces: Syrian Arab Army (includes Republican Guard), Syrian Naval Forces, Syrian Air Forces, Syrian Air Defense Forces, National Defense Forces (pro-government militia and auxiliary forces) (2021) note: the Syrian government is working to demobilize militias or integrate them into its regular forces |
Military service age and obligation | President Erdogan on 25 June 2019 signed a new law cutting the men's mandatory military service period in half, as well as making paid military service permanent; with the new system, the period of conscription was reduced from 12 months to six months for privates and non-commissioned soldiers (the service term for reserve officers chosen among university or college graduates will remain 12 months); after completing six months of service, if a conscripted soldier wants to and is suitable for extending his military service, he may do so for an additional six months in return for a monthly salary; under the new law, all male Turkish citizens over the age of 20 will be required to undergo a one month military training period, but they can obtain an exemption from the remaining five months of their mandatory service by paying 31,000 Turkish Liras (2019) | 18-42 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; conscript service obligation is 18 months; women are not conscripted but may volunteer to serve (2019) |
Military - note | the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) has actively pursued the goal of asserting civilian control over the military since first taking power in 2002; the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) role in internal security has been significantly reduced; the TSK leadership continues to be an influential institution within Turkey, but plays a much smaller role in politics; the Turkish military remains focused on the threats emanating from the Syrian civil war, Russia's actions in Ukraine, and the PKK insurgency; primary domestic threats are listed as fundamentalism (with the definition in some dispute with the civilian government), separatism (Kurdish discontent), and the extreme left wing; Ankara strongly opposed establishment of an autonomous Kurdish region in Iraq; an overhaul of the Turkish Land Forces Command (TLFC) taking place under the "Force 2014" program is to produce 20-30% smaller, more highly trained forces characterized by greater mobility and firepower and capable of joint and combined operations; the TLFC has taken on increasing international peacekeeping responsibilities including in Afghanistan; the Turkish Navy is a regional naval power that wants to develop the capability to project power beyond Turkey's coastal waters; the Navy is heavily involved in NATO, multinational, and UN operations; its roles include control of territorial waters and security for sea lines of communications; the Turkish Air Force adopted an "Aerospace and Missile Defense Concept" in 2002 and has initiated project work on an integrated missile defense system; in a controversial move, it purchased the Russian S-400 air defense system for an estimated $2.5 billion in July 2019; Air Force priorities include attaining a modern deployable, survivable, and sustainable force structure, and establishing a sustainable command and control system; Turkey is a NATO ally (joined 1952) and hosts NATO's Land Forces Command in Izmir, as well as the AN/TPY-2 radar as part of NATO Missile Defense | the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) has operated in the Golan between Israel and Syria since 1974 to monitor the ceasefire following the 1973 Arab-Israeli War and supervise the areas of separation between the two countries; as of late 2020, UNDOF consisted of about 1,100 military personnel |
Military and security service personnel strengths | information varies; approximately 425,000 active duty personnel (325,000 Army; 50,000 Navy; 50,000 Air Force); approximately 150,000 Gendarmerie (2021) | N/A; since the start of the civil war in 2011, the Syrian Armed Forces (SAF) have taken significant losses in personnel; prior to the civil war, the SAF had approximately 300,000 active troops, including 200-225,000 Army; by 2018, its estimated size was reportedly less than 100,000 due to casualties and desertions; currently, the SAF is trying to rebuild and integrate government-allied militias and auxiliary forces while continuing to engage in active military operations (2021) |
Military equipment inventories and acquisitions | the Turkish Armed Forces inventory is mostly comprised of a mix of domestically-produced and Western weapons systems, although in recent years, Turkey has also acquired some Chinese, Russian, and South Korean equipment; since 2010, the US is the leading provider of armaments to Turkey, followed by Italy, South Korea, and Spain; Turkey has a robust defense industry capable of producing a range of weapons systems for both export and internal use, including armored vehicles, naval vessels, and unmanned aerial platforms, although it is heavily dependent on Western technology; Turkey's defense industry also partners with other countries for defense production (2020) | the SAF's inventory is comprised mostly of Russian and Soviet-era equipment; since 2010, Russia has supplied nearly all of Syria's imported weapons systems, although China and Iran have also provided military equipment (2020) |
Transnational Issues
Turkey | Syria | |
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Disputes - international | complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Greece in the Aegean Sea; status of north Cyprus question remains; Turkey has expressed concern over the status of Kurds in Iraq; in 2009, Swiss mediators facilitated an accord reestablishing diplomatic ties between Armenia and Turkey, but neither side has ratified the agreement and the rapprochement effort has faltered; Turkish authorities have complained that blasting from quarries in Armenia might be damaging the medieval ruins of Ani, on the other side of the Arpacay valley | Golan Heights is Israeli-controlled with an almost 1,000-strong UN Disengagement Observer Force patrolling a buffer zone since 1964; lacking a treaty or other documentation describing the boundary, portions of the Lebanon-Syria boundary are unclear with several sections in dispute; since 2000, Lebanon has claimed Shab'a Farms in the Golan Heights; 2004 Agreement and pending demarcation would settle border dispute with Jordan |
Illicit drugs | key transit route for Southwest Asian heroin to Western Europe and, to a lesser extent, the US - via air, land, and sea routes; major Turkish and other international trafficking organizations operate out of Istanbul; laboratories to convert imported morphine base into heroin exist in remote regions of Turkey and near Istanbul; government maintains strict controls over areas of legal opium poppy cultivation and over output of poppy straw concentrate; lax enforcement of money-laundering controls | a transit point for opiates, hashish, and cocaine bound for regional and Western markets; weak anti-money-laundering controls and bank privatization may leave it vulnerable to money laundering |
Refugees and internally displaced persons | refugees (country of origin): 3,705,188 (Syria) (2021); 173,250 (Iraq) (asylum seekers), 116,400 (Afghanistan) (asylum seekers), 27,000 (Iran) (asylum seekers) (2020) IDPs: 1.099 million (displaced from 1984-2005 because of fighting between the Kurdish PKK and Turkish military; most IDPs are Kurds from eastern and southeastern provinces; no information available on persons displaced by development projects) (2020) stateless persons: 117 (2018) | refugees (country of origin): 13,311 (Iraq) (2019); 562,312 (Palestinian Refugees) (2020) IDPs: 6.568 million (ongoing civil war since 2011) (2020) stateless persons: 160,000 (2020); note - Syria's stateless population consists of Kurds and Palestinians; stateless persons are prevented from voting, owning land, holding certain jobs, receiving food subsidies or public healthcare, enrolling in public schools, or being legally married to Syrian citizens; in 1962, some 120,000 Syrian Kurds were stripped of their Syrian citizenship, rendering them and their descendants stateless; in 2011, the Syrian Government granted citizenship to thousands of Syrian Kurds as a means of appeasement; however, resolving the question of statelessness is not a priority given Syria's ongoing civil war note: the ongoing civil war has resulted in more than 5.6 million registered Syrian refugees - dispersed in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey - as of July 2021 |
Terrorism
Turkey | Syria | |
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Terrorist Group(s) | Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS); Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan; Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps/Qods Force; Kurdistan Workers' Party; al-Qa'ida; Revolutionary People's Liberation Party/Front note: details about the history, aims, leadership, organization, areas of operation, tactics, targets, weapons, size, and sources of support of the group(s) appear(s) in Appendix-T | Abdallah Azzam Brigades; Ansar al-Islam; Asa'ib Ahl Al-Haq; Hizballah; Hurras al-Din; Islamic Jihad Union; Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps -- Qods Force; Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham; Kata'ib Hizballah; Kurdistan Workers' Party; Mujahidin Shura Council in the Environs of Jerusalem; al-Nusrah Front (Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham); al-Qa'ida; Palestine Liberation Front; PFLP-General Command; Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine note: details about the history, aims, leadership, organization, areas of operation, tactics, targets, weapons, size, and sources of support of the group(s) appear(s) in Appendix-T |
Environment
Turkey | Syria | |
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Air pollutants | particulate matter emissions: 41.97 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.) carbon dioxide emissions: 372.72 megatons (2016 est.) methane emissions: 57.53 megatons (2020 est.) | particulate matter emissions: 39.43 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.) carbon dioxide emissions: 28.83 megatons (2016 est.) methane emissions: 12.93 megatons (2020 est.) |
Total water withdrawal | municipal: 6.016 billion cubic meters (2017 est.) industrial: 2.898 billion cubic meters (2017 est.) agricultural: 50.05 billion cubic meters (2017 est.) | municipal: 1.475 billion cubic meters (2017 est.) industrial: 615.4 million cubic meters (2017 est.) agricultural: 14.67 billion cubic meters (2017 est.) |
Waste and recycling | municipal solid waste generated annually: 31.283 million tons (2015 est.) | municipal solid waste generated annually: 4.5 million tons (2009 est.) municipal solid waste recycled annually: 112,500 tons (2010 est.) percent of municipal solid waste recycled: 2.5% (2010 est.) |
Source: CIA Factbook